6.3. Ham's Merging of Western Christianity with East Asian Philosophies
Ham presented his view on the meaning of Westernised Christianity from the East Asian standpoint, and in doing so integrated Western Christianity and East Asian philosophies. It appears to me that for Ham, one of the foremost criteria for democracy was not only ideological and political pluralism, but also philosophical and even religious pluralism. Ham's pluralistic religious stance not only gave him tolerance towards other religious groups, but also provided him with a broad outlook on human affairs of humanitarian concern. In view of this, I will explore Ham's merging of Western Christianity with East Asian philosophies.
The Characteristics of Religious Tradition in Korea
Some Korean Christians have said that "Ham was not a Christian but just a religious thinker". This is a plausible remark from the fundamental Christian's point of view, as Ham's Universal view on Christianity conflicts with orthodox Christian belief. Ham expressed his universal outlook on Christianity thus: "I don't believe the truth can only be found through Christianity. Truth does not belong to any one person or organisation absolutely." Yet at his 87th birthday party (in 1988) Ham still publicly confessed himself to be a Christian: "I confess Jesus as my Lord."
I, as a Christian, also consider Ham to be a Christian to the core. I define the term Christian as being a follower of Christ in the sense of heading the 'spirit' of Jesus and leading an altruistic life here-and-now with concern for social justice, rather than by insisting on one's tenet regarding the trinity, atonement and physical resurrection to others. It seems to me that established Christian Church is not necessarily the only way in which the spirit of Jesus can be revealed to humankind. To some people, it can be revealed through nature, arts or the struggle for socio-political justice. For example the former leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev (1931- ) defines his view on nature with relation to the church, as follows:
"The oneness with nature was sometimes so strong that we seemed to inhabit a different world. No words can express that feeling. Probably a true believer experiences the same soaring of the spirit in church. But then, to me, nature is also a church --- My close organic ties with nature - and this I can affirm - greatly influenced my development in addition [relation] to people and society. My character and my entire perception of the world were to a large extent shaped by nature, and by the awareness that not only do I exist in it, but that nature lives inside me."
It seems to me that Gorbachev feels what can be considered the 'spirit' of Jesus through contact with nature, although he was not a Christian in the orthodox sense. It is also worth bearing in mind that Jesus was a Jew rather than a Christian, and that he emphasised the importance of one's inner spirit and truth above anything else: "A time is coming when you will worship the Father neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem --- the true worshippers will worship the Father in spirit and truth --- God is spirit, and his worshipers must worship in spirit and in truth."
Meanwhile, despite his own confession, Ham is still a controversial figure among Korean Christians. Why is this? Why does Ham's perspective on Christianity appear different from the conventional or the Christo-centric outlook? Perhaps Ham's decision to be a 'Christian' was not a difficult one; more difficult was the question of what kind of Christian he should be? Ham lived in the East Asia at a time of social chaos and political turmoil under the predominant values of Western and Japanese imperialistic control. This was a major factor contributing to Ham's understanding of Christianity as something different from the conventional Western-centric view.
In this regard, I will redefine the meaning of Christian in the context of the modern world, that is the multi-cultural world, and I will also consider what this could mean for the Korean Christian in the light of Ham's Universal inclination. In considering these points, the following discussions will be raised in my argument: What was Jesus' idea of the Church? Was it the same as has been formulated by humans since his death, and is Christianity really a monotheistic religion? Why should Ham's idea of religious pluralism and his view of Universal Christianity ever really appeal to the mass of the people?
Korea is a land of religious pluralism. Generally, Asian countries have predominantly retained Asian religions, despite ardent efforts by Western missionaries in previous centuries. On the other hand, Western countries primarily maintain Western religions, usually Christianity. But in case of Korea, Protestantism has been one of the outstanding formative factors of contemporary Korea. Christianity in Korea, unlike China, Japan and any other non-Christian country, arrived purely as the 'gospel' and the 'good news', not accompanied by gun-boat diplomacy or Western commercialism. Thus from the outset it provided a positive image of Christianity in the Korean people's minds. Hence, Korea came to be commonly described by Western missionaries as "the most Christian land in the Orient". It seems that Korea is the only country in Asia where Protestantism has solidly established itself over the last 100 years as a notable ingredient of a national culture.
In this respect, Gregory Henderson has argued that Korea is a land of co-existence between Asian and Western religions. Virtually anyone can feel the religious plurality in Korea, where the main religions are Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity and traditional folk religion. Serious religious discords have divided many countries and affected their socio-political development. But, in Henderson's view, this has only been marginally so in Korea, which is commonly accepted as a nation in which there have been no religious wars, and generally speaking throughout most of its history Korea has enjoyed a comparatively ideal religious harmony. Notwithstanding the above, it should be noted that during the Choson dynasty the ruling class brutally suppressed Buddhism in favour of Confucianism. However, Buddhism not only survived but was also revived as the major religion in contemporary Korea.
In this light, let us look into the characteristics of the main religions in Korea, firstly, Confucianism. It is fascinating that in no other country did Confucianism have as powerful an influence on the civilisation as it did in Korea. Even now the dominant socio-political and cultural influences in Korea are still to an extent Confucian. Today's Koreans are more attached to Confucianism than the Chinese, not only culturally but also academically. Equally, Western scholars noticed that Koreans were generally more Confucian than their counterparts in China, the cradle of Confucianism.
Secondly let me look into Korean Buddhism. Buswell has argued that one of the best kept secrets in the religious world is the richness of Korean Buddhist culture, which includes the most flourishing Mahayana temple in East Asia, an active scholastic history and an emphasis on Zen. Buddhism has long been within the hearts of Koreans and a part of their inner identity. This accounts for the remarkable revival of Buddhism after its suppression and near eradication by the Confucian ruling class after the reign of King Sejo in the Choson dynasty.
It seems that Confucianism and Buddhism, rather than Taoism, have been the predominant and influential philosophies within Korean history. However, although never at the core of Korean history, Taoism has always existed as an underlying presence. Whereas Confucianism and Buddhism left behind myriad historical records, Taoism did not. The only recorded information that remains is small and fragmented. As a result of this, until the end of the Second World War only one fully researched paper on Korean Taoism existed. Because of this lack of written sources, Korean Taoism was incapable of spreading as a philosophy. However, that is not to say that Taoist philosophy has not had some influence.
In diffuse ways, Korean Taoism has survived to influence all classes of the Korean people. A clear instance of the effect of Taoism among Koreans is the pursuit of good fortune and long-life, a part of Taoist religion rather than Taoist philosophy. Moreover Taoism has affected the lives of everyday people in other ways, including geomancy, fortune telling, prognostication, folk literature and religion. In this respect, Korean Taoism has tended to reinforce a certain fatalism. It has emphasised making do with one's lot, carefulness and even submission, and at the same time, legitimated certain animist trends in popular culture as a kind of folk religion.
Apart from the above main religions, it is not so difficult to find strong influences of other religions, such as Shamanism in present day Korea. This has long been a religion of feeling for the illiterate masses. Shamanism is both the least formal and academic, yet at the same time it is the longest-established religious faith and practice in Korea, even vastly pre-dating Buddhism and Confucianism.
What about Korean Christianity? Koreans have many more evangelical and conservative Churches than their Western contemporaries. For example, today, 23 Korean church buildings are among the 50 biggest in the world. In particular, the first and the second biggest churches in the world are found in South Korea belonging to the Sunbogum [Full-Gospel] Church. Sunday in Korea is a bustling time not only for morning worship but also mid-day, afternoon and evening worship. Thus it is impossible when discussing modern Korean history not to speak about the role of Christians and the Christian church. The Protestant churches are now the most predominant and dynamic religious entities in contemporary Korea, and Protestantism in Korea is one of the fastest-growing religions in the world.
As Suh Kwangsun pointed out one noteworthy scene that all but amazes first-time visitors to South Korea is the proliferation of crosses and church steeples, ranging from magnificent churches to back-lane chapels, that tower above the skyline. Foreign visitors will be bewildered by the abundance of red neon crosses indicating congregations worshipping either in their own buildings or in a borrowed store building. Virtually every district or area has a minimum of one church. Churches usually outnumber the tabang or coffee shops.
The modernisation of Korea was accompanied by the growth of the Christian churches and their educational institutions and other establishments. No one can deny that Christianity was the main contributor as a mechanism and channel for the introduction of Western civilisation into Korea. The Korean nation came to realise the concept of the global world, not just a Sino-centric world, and the ideas of liberty and equality, through Christianity. In the church, yangban and commoner sat together and discussed together. This marked a kind of social revolution in feudal Choson society.
Although it is a recent-comer in the Korean religious environment, Christianity has shown a spectacular development there, not only in terms of religion but also in terms of social influence and political effect. That is why, from among Christians, despite Christianity's short history in Korea, there have been many political leaders who have emerged: Syngman Rhee (President of the First Republic), Yun Poson (President of the Second Republic), Chang Myon (Prime Minister of the Second Republic), Kim Youngsam (President of the Seventh Republic) and Kim Daejung (President of the Eighth Republic). This shows that, apart from the era of military dictatorships, South Korean politics have been predominantly led by Christians.
Nevertheless when I reviewed my personal experiences as a Sunday School teacher (1979-1981), and as a Christian magazine editor (1985-1987) at a Presbyterian church, it is clear to me that Korean Christianity is mixed with the authoritarian and hierarchical elements of Confucianism. Similarly there is an interesting resemblance between the discipline of Confucian self-cultivation and the discipline of missionary Christians in their hardiness and puritanical nature. Both were conservative in doctrinal matters and conformist. According to the Confucian view point, the ruling body (the church in Christian terms) was not an organisation based on law, but on virtue and morality: "Guide them by virtue, keep them in line with the rites, and they will, besides having a sense of shame, reform themselves." Thus to rule meant, 'to correct' the dependants (laymen) according to the precept of proper behaviour (creed): "To govern (chong) is to correct (chong). If you set an example by being correct, who would dare to remain incorrect?". In this regard, the conservative tradition and strong admiration for authority in Confucianism, reappeared in Korean Christianity.
Most Korean Christians also believe and accept that Christianity is an opposite to Korean and East Asian culture, no matter how old and how resourceful it might be. Thus oddly enough, most of the Korean churches celebrate and adopt the American-style Thanks-Giving Day, disregarding the existing ch'usok (traditional harvest ceremony of Korea). In view of this, the Korean church has produced only limited attempts to create the notion of an East Asian Christianity, whilst imitating insignificant Western cultural trends and appearances.